Porul

ராம்பா கிளர்ச்சி [1922-1924]

30 ஜன., 2023

ரம்பா கிளர்ச்சி

ராம்பா கிளர்ச்சி (மான்யம் கிளர்ச்சி ) என்பது ஒரு பழங்குடியினர் எழுச்சி. இது மெட்ராஸ் ப்ரெசிடெண்சியின் கோதாவரி நிறுவனத்தில் அல்லூரி சீதாராம ராஜு தலைமையில் நடைபெற்றது. ரம்பா (Rampa)ஆந்திராவின் கடலோரப் பகுதியில் உள்ளது.

ரம்பா பகுதி

அந்நிர்வாகப்பகுதியில் வசிக்கும் பழங்குடியினர் போடு(Podu) சாகுபடி முறையை பின்பற்றினர், ஒவ்வொரு ஆண்டும் சில அளவு வனப்பகுதிகள் சாகுபடிக்காக அழிக்கப்பட்டன, ஏனெனில் அதுவே அவர்களின் உணவு ஆதாரமாக இருந்தது. ஆங்கிலேயர்கள் பழங்குடியினரை வெளியேற்ற விரும்பினர், அதனால் அப்பகுதிகளில் உள்ள மரங்கள் அவர்களின் ரயில்வே மற்றும் கப்பலைகளை உருவாக்க உதவும். சென்னை வனச்சட்டம்,1882 அம்மக்களின் சுதந்திர நடமாட்டத்தை கட்டுப்படுத்தி, அவர்களின் பாரம்பரிய போடு விவசாயத்தில் ஈடுபடுவதை தடை செய்தது. இந்த அடக்குமுறை ஒழுங்கு மான்யம் கிளர்ச்சியின் தொடக்கமாகும். இது ஆகஸ்ட் 1922இல் தொடங்கி மே 1924இல் அல்லூரி சீதாராம ராஜூ பிடிபட்டு கொள்ளப்படும் வரை நீடித்தது.

அல்லூரி சீதாராம ராஜு:

கடலோர நகரமான விஷாக்கப்பட்டினத்திற்கு அருகில் உள்ள ஒரு சிறிய கிராமத்தில் ஜூலை 4, 1897ல் பிறந்தார். இவர் ஆரம்பத்தில் காந்தியின் ஒத்துழையாமை இயக்கத்தின் கீழ் இருந்தார் ஆனால் அதனால் ஒரு வெற்றியும் இல்லை.

இவர் ஆதிவாசிகளிடம் இருந்து கால சோதனையான போர் முறைகள்(Time-Tested methods of war) மற்றும் அவரின் தந்திரங்களை ஆங்கிலேயர்க்கு எதிராக போர் வைக்க சேர்த்தார். மே 7, 1924ல் அவர் மரத்தில் கட்டப்பட்டு ஆங்கிலேயரால் சுட்டுக் கொல்லப்பட்டார். அவர் மான்யம் வீருடு (காட்டின் நாயகன்) என்ற பட்டத்துடன் கௌரவிக்கப்பட்டார். ஆந்திர பிரதேச அரசு ஒவ்வொரு ஆண்டும் அவரது பிறந்தநாளான ஜூலை 4ஆம் தேதியை அரசு விழாவாகக் கொண்டாடுகிறது.

Contribution of Herbert Spencer to Sociology

Herbert Spencer(1820-1903) a great social philosopher and a prominent British social thinker, is often called the "Second Founding Father of Sociology". Commonly known for his "THEORY OF SOCIAL DARWINISM(1896)" also called "THEORY OF SOCIAL EVOLUTION" which was influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution.

Contribution of Herbert Spencer

Darwin stated that species with traits that are more suitable to the environment have a greater chance of survival and will likely pass on the successful traits to their offspring. Oppositely, species with poorly adaptable genes will have a lesser opportunity for reproduction and survival; consequently, those species that survive will gradually change and evolve.

Social Darwinism held that certain human beings would become more powerful than others because of their race or group, which means that the more powerful human races and groups would grow more powerful while the weaker ones would be diminished.

According to him, living organisms and society go through the same process in order to function efficiently, just as living organisms had different systems such as regulative, sustaining, distributory, and respiratory, whereas society is made up of government, health, jobs, and agriculture as well as communication systems that help ensure effective functionality.

His theory clearly states how humans pass from a savage to a civilised state, and it holds that all of society changes from a single to complex natural process. He concluded that natural change resulted in perfectionist state in society.

He rejected class struggle and Marx's theory as well as many of Comte's theories.

India-Maldives Bilateral Relations: A Deeply Rooted Partnership with a Rich History | UPSC

27 டிச., 2022

Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi meeting Maldives President

Source : PIB

India and Maldives have a longstanding relationship with a rich history dating back to ancient times. The Maldives, a small island nation in the Indian Ocean, has long been a part of India's sphere of influence and the two countries have shared cultural, economic, and political ties for centuries.

In the ancient world, The Maldives played an important role in the ancient trade route between the Middle East and East Asia, and it continues to be a source of valuable spices and other goods for India. Additionally, the Maldives has a long history of being a center of Buddhist learning, attracting many Indian scholars and monks over the years.

India-Maldives : Deeply Rooted Partnership:

After gaining independence from British in 1965, India was one of the first countries to recognize the Maldives as a sovereign nation. Since then, the two countries have developed close diplomatic and economic ties, with India providing assistance in areas such as infrastructure development, healthcare, and education.
The Maldives has also become a popular tourist destination for Indians in recent years, and the two countries have signed agreements to promote cultural and educational exchanges. India has also provided military and security assistance to help the Maldives maintain stability and defend against external threats.
In summary, the relationship between India and the Maldives is one of cooperation and friendship, and both countries have worked to strengthen their ties over the years. Understanding the history of India-Maldives bilateral relations is important for students preparing for the UPSC exam, as it is a significant aspect of India's foreign policy and international relations.

Bilateral Agreements:

The two countries have signed a number of important agreements to strengthen their ties. Some of the key agreements signed between India and the Maldives include:

Free Trade Agreement: In 2011, India and the Maldives signed a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) to promote trade and economic cooperation between the two countries. The FTA liberalized trade in goods and services, and provided a framework for cooperation in areas such as investment, technology transfer, and capacity building.
Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement: In 2015, India and the Maldives signed a Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) to prevent double taxation of income and encourage investment between the two countries. The DTAA sets out the rules and procedures for the taxation of income earned by individuals and businesses in India and the Maldives.
Extradition Treaty: In 2018, India and the Maldives signed an Extradition Treaty to facilitate the extradition of fugitives and criminals between the two countries. The treaty provides a legal framework for the extradition of individuals wanted for offenses such as terrorism, drug trafficking, and financial crimes.

Regional and Multilateral Groups:

India and the Maldives are both part of a number of regional groups and organizations. Some of the key regional groups that the two countries are part of include:

SAARC: India and the Maldives are both founding members of SAARC, a regional organization comprising eight South Asian countries.
Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA): The Maldives is a member of IORA, a regional organization comprising 21 countries from the Indian Ocean region. IORA promotes cooperation and collaboration in areas such as trade, investment, and environmental protection. India is also an important partner of IORA.
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC): India and the Maldives are both members of BIMSTEC (Alternative playground to SAARC), a regional organization comprising seven countries from the Bay of Bengal region. BIMSTEC promotes cooperation and collaboration in areas such as trade, economic development, and regional security.
World Trade Organization (WTO): Both India and the Maldives are members of the WTO, a global organization that promotes free and fair trade between countries. Maldives has always backed India which is considered as one of leader of Global South in world forums.

Social Institutions - Marriage

28 நவ., 2022

What is a Social Institution: Social institutions are an integral part of society, shaping its behavior and norms. These institutions include the family, education, religion, the economy, and government. They serve to facilitate smooth functioning within a society by providing a framework for social interaction and the fulfillment of basic needs and desires. In addition, social institutions provide a sense of stability and continuity by establishing expectations for behavior and shared values and beliefs for guiding actions.

TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

Social Institutions are as diverse as it can get. Few prominent ones are

Marriage
Kinship
Family
Education
Religion
Education
Polity

MARRIAGE AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION:

Marriage is a legally recognized relationship between two individuals that is typically characterized by monogamy, exclusivity, and permanence. It is often considered a cornerstone of personal and social stability and may come with legal and economic benefits. The definition and requirements for marriage vary across cultures and have evolved over time. It may be viewed as a spiritual or secular union and may carry legal rights and responsibilities, such as medical decision-making authority and inheritance rights. Marriage is often seen as a way to establish a committed personal relationship and create a family unit.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE:

It is universal and permanent
Relationship between man and woman, it requires social approval
Marriage bond is enduring and it creates mutual obligation
It is associated with civil or religious ceremony
It is a religious and social institution

TYPES OF MARRIAGE:

1) POLYGAMY:

It is the custom of having more than one mate at the same time. It can be of two types,

Polygyny
Polyandry

POLYGYNY:

The practice of having more than one wife at a time. It is more popular than polyandry but not as universal as monogamy. It has prevailed among the ancient Hebrews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Indians and others. It is in practice among the Eskimo tribes, Crow Indians, Baigas of India, African Negroes, the Nagas, etc., However, it is permitted in Muslim Community.

Polygyny is classified into two types. They are sororal and non-sororal.

I) Sororal Polygyny:

"soror"- sister

In this the cowives are sisters and they are often preferred because sisters are thought to be mutually supportive and less argumentative. Also called as sororate. The death of the wife or childlessness is compensated by a new spouse who is the sister of the wife.

II) Non-Sororal Polygyny:

In this the wives are not related as sisters. For social, economical and politcal reasons both the type are practised.

Causes of polygyny:

a) More women less man

b) Economic advantage

c) Desire for more children

d) Capturing women in wars and fights

e) Enforced celibacy

POLYANDRY:

The practice of having more than one husband at a time. It is practised among Tibetans, Bahama of Africa, tribals of Samoa and others. In India tribes such as Toda, Kota, Khasa too practise this kind of marriage. Earlier Nairs of Kerala used to practised such form.

Polyandry is classified into two types. They are fraternal and non-fraternal.

I) Fraternal polyandry:

The husbands in the polyandrous marriage are brothers, this practice is called as fraternal or levirate polyandry. It is prevalent among Todas.

II) Non- Fraternal polyandry:

In this all the husbands are not related to each other. The woman lives with her different husbands in turns. While she lives with one husband, others have no right or claim over her.

Causes of polyandry:

a) Scarcity of women

b) Social customs

c) Extreme poverty

d) Bride price

e) Desire to keep the property intact (Tibetians)

f) Desire to control population

2) MONOGAMY:

It is the form of marriage in which one man marries one woman. It is found among the primitive as well as civilised people. It is one of the universal practice at present.

It is practised among the tribals such as santals, the Hopi, Andaman Islanders, the Vedas of Ceylon and others. Ancient Hindus regarded monogamy as the most ideal form of marriage.

ADVANTAGES:

I) Universally practicable:

It deals with one-to-one ratio (one man to one women), and only it can provide marital oppurtunity and satisfaction to all the individuals. Neither polygyny nor polyandry can equally satisfy all.

II) Economically Better Suitable and promotes better understanding:

No man of ordinary income can think of polygamy. Only monogamy can adjust itself with poverty. It contributes to family peace and happiness. Vatsayana, an authority on "Kama Sutra" remarked,

"At best a man can only please one woman physically, mentally and spiritually, therefore the man who enters into polygamy marriage voluntarily courts unhappiness and misery"

III) Contributes to Stable family:

Here, the family bond is more stable, stronger and long lasting. It is free from conflicts which are found in polygamous families.

IV) Helps to better socialisation:

Since Husband and Wife have better understanding, they can give greater attention to socialisation and special attention to their children. Under polygyny the husband cannot devote himself fully to each of his wives and children because they are too numerous.

V) Aged people are not neglected:

In this old parents are protected and looked after properly. In polygyny, old wives are often discarded and in their place younger wives are brought in.

VI) Provides better status for women:

Women are given only a very low position in polygyny. Their rights are never recognised, they can be divorced. But in monogamy, women enjoy better social status, in the modern societies they enjoy almost equal status with men.

CHANGING TRENDS IN MARRIAGE:

I) Change in the form of marriage:

Monogamy has become more popular and practised, compared to polygamy and group marriage. The recent trends of unconventional marriages like Gay marriage, homosexual marriages are being practised.

II) Change in the process of mate selection:

Earlier parents used to select the boy or girl, the opinion of their children was barely asked. Nowadays, parents fix the marriage with the consultation of their children. Sometimes, the boy or girl match their spouse on their own without the intervention of their parents.

IV) Change in the age of marriage:

Child marriage is been declining. The legal age for marriage is 21. The legislation like Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006, Education, Media, Awareness have delayed the marriage age.

V) Change in the agencies of marriage:

Few decades ago the alliance was fixed in consultation with relatives, brokers, etc., but now various marriages are fixed online through many matrimonial columns in the media, newspaper, etc.,

VI) Change in rituals:

There are several "Samskaras(rituals)" that were observed but now not all these rituals are observed inspite the continuance of faith that marriage is made in heaven and bondage is for seven janmas among many. Kanyadhana and Mangalyadharana were the main ceremonies that are observed. And usually in the olden days marriage ceremonies used to take place for about 3 to 7 days but now these got reduced to 1 or 2 days.

OTHER FEATURES OF CHANGING TRENDS:

Increase in divorce cases
Attraction towards gay, homosexul marriages, living together concepts
Inclination towards love, inter-caste and inter-religious marriages.
Change in stability
Married couples having fewer children
Marriage counselling on the rise
Decline in the rates of marriage.

Preamble - Porul.in Explainer

25 நவ., 2022

The Preamble is an introductory statement to the constitution. It is intended to state the subject, aims and objectives of the constitution. The Preamble to the Indian Constitution is based on the "Objective Resolution" of Nehru. Jawaharlal Nehru introduced an objective resolution on December 13, 1947 and it was accepted by constituent assembly on 22nd January 1947.

The Preamble derives its authority from the people of India. It declares India to be a sovereign, socialistic, secular, democratic and republic. It specifies justice, liberty, equality and fraternity as the objectives. It was adopted on November 26th, 1949.

The Preamble has been amended only once by the 42nd Constitutional amendment, 1976. With the help of this amendment three new words were added to the Preamble namely socialist, secular and integrity.

Porul.in

SCOPE:

As Supreme Court has observed it is the key to unravel the minds of the makers of the Constitution. It is non-justifiable in nature, like the DPSPs and cannot be enforced in a court of law. The Preamble can neither provide definite or real power to the three organs of the state nor limit their powers under the provisions of the Constitution. Therefore, Preamble plays a limited and yet vital role in removing the doubt surrounding the provisions of the Constitution.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PREAMBLE:

The words sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic and republic in the Preamble show the nature of the nation. The ideals of justice, liberty, equality, fraternity reflect the constitutional objectives. Preamble reflects the philosophy of the Constitution.

A famous jurist and constituent expert named N.A Palkhivala describes the Preamble as the "Identity card of the Constitution"

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KEY WORDS:

We the people of India:

It means the people of India are the ultimate leaders and their power is exercised at the ballot box. The selected representatives through the elections will govern the nation on behalf of citizens of India and will be responsible for them.

Sovereign:

The word sovereign means supreme power or authority. According to our Indian Constitution, India is a sovereign state. A sovereign state has its own independent authority and not being dominated by any other external force.

Socialist:

India has adopted "Democratic Socialism", which advocates a mixed economy, where the private and governmental sector co-exist. It seeks to eradicate poverty, ignorance, sickness and inequality in opportunity.

Secular:

The term secular means all the religions in India gets equal respect, protection and support from the state.

Democratic:

The term democratic refers to the form of government in which the people have the authority in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or through the representatives elected by the people through elections.

Republic:

The term republic means that the head of state is directly or indirectly elected by the people. For Example, In India, the President is the head of the State and he is indirectly elected by the people.

OBJECTIVES:

The main objective is to promote peace throughout the nation. The factors helping in achieving the objective are:

Justice:

The term stands for system of equal rights, freedom and opportunities for all in a society. India seeks social, economic and political justice to ensure equality to its citizens.

Social Justice - It means a society without discrimination on any grounds like caste, creed, gender, religion, etc.,

Economic Justice - No discrimination on the basis of wealth, income and economic status of the people. Every person must be paid equally and equal opportunities should be provided for every people.

Political Justice - All the people have an equal, free and fair right without any discrimination to participate in political opportunities.

Liberty:

The term "liberty" means freedom, it means that people can choose their way of life and no reasonable restrictions can be imposed in terms of thoughts, feelings and view. Liberty does not mean freedom to do anything, but there is a certain limit which is set by the law.

Equality:

The term means all the people have given equal opportunities for everything without any discrimination. Everyone is equal before the law.

Fraternity:

The term fraternity means a feeling of brotherhood. It helps to promote dignity and unity in the nation.

LANDMARK CASES:

In Re Berubari Union case (1960), the Supreme Court held that the Preamble is not the part of the Constitution and because of this, Preamble has no substantive power.

In Keshavananda Bharati vs. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme Court held that the Preamble is the part of the Constitution and it is of great importance. The court further held that the Preamble can be amended without altering the basic structure of the Constitution.

In S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994), the Supreme Court reiterated the view held in Keshavananda Bharati case and held that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution.

In K.K. Bhaskaran v. State (2011), the Supreme Court held that the Constitution should be interpreted in such manner so as to secure the goal of social, economic and political justice.

Melocanna baccifera | IAS Exam

21 நவ., 2022

Melocanna baccifera is a tropical bamboo species also called "Muli" in North East India. It is one of the largest fruit producing Bamboo and native to NorthEast India-Myanmar region.

Melocanna baccifera

The Bamboo grows in a tropical-subtropical climate and It is most useful in its native range especially in Bangladesh.

Recently, This bamboo was on the headlines for attracting predators like Bats, Rats, etc., See basically these Bamboos during its gregarious flowering season produces edible fruits which have the size and shape of pear.

The Problem with the fruit?

Predators like Bat, Rats line up in large numbers to consume these fruits. Previously Scientists were of the opinion that the animals are getting attracted towards the fruit for its high protein. But a recent research has revealed that the sweet nature of these fruits which is nothing but sugars are the reasons for its familiarity among animals.
Fruit Chemistry an interesting subfield of chemistry is on rage nowadays as it can help us identify the connections between so many incidents involving Animals and their food behaviour.

WHY is Melocanna baccifera the Issue now?

Black Rats the one at the forefront in the line devouring the fruits, multiply rapidly during the fruit season. This is dubbed as "Rat Flood". The issue that threatens is the rats may turn towards crop produce once the fruit season is over. This may result in adverse effects like Famines which can impact heavily on Human livelihood. Let's also remember that rats are infamous for plague too.

DAMAGES UNDER SECTION 73 OF THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872

20 நவ., 2022

What are Damages: Damages are monetary compensation allowed to the aggrieved party by law for the loss or injury he suffered for the breach of contract.A breach of contract occurs when a party entered into a contract fails to fulfill their promised obligations.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS TO CLAIM DAMAGES:

There are some essential elements which are to be proved by the party claiming the compensation for breach of contract. They are as follows,

A valid contract has to be there for making such a claim.
Another party to the contract must have breached the contract.
Due to such breach of contract, the party claiming must have suffered the loss.

In the case of Jalpaiguri zilla Parishad vs. Shankar Prasad Halder the apex court has observed that damages can be given only for the actual loss and not for the remote or indirect loss.

Section 73 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 provides compensation for the loss or damage caused by the breach of contract.

GENERAL OR ORDINARY DAMAGE:

These are the damages which are payable for the loss arising naturally and directly as a result of breach of contract. This damage is also known as proximate or natural damage.

ILLUSTRATION:

X agrees to sell and deliver 10 bags of onion to Y for Rs, 5000 after two months. On the date of delivery, the price of onion increases and X refuses to perform his promise. Y purchases 10 bags of potatoes for Rs.5,500. He can receive Rs 500 from X as ordinary damages arising directly from the breach.

In the case of Hadley vs. Baxendale (1854), Plaintiff's flour mill was stopped due to the breakdown of a crankshaft, he delivered it to the defendant, it has to be taken to a manufacturer to copy it and make a new one. Plaintiff didn't know to the defendant that delay would result in a loss of profits. By some neglect on the part of the defendant the delivery of the shaft was delayed. House of Lords held that the defendant was not liable for loss of profit, since the planintiff didn't disclose the defendant that the mill was closed for want of shaft; if the plaintiff informed then defendant could have made althernative arrangements for quick transportation of the shaft.

SPECIAL DAMAGES:

Also called consequential damages, covers any loss incurred because of special circumstances or conditions that are not ordinarily predictable. To obtain this type of damage, the non breaching party must prove that the breaching party knew of the special circumstances or conditions at the time of the contract was made.

ILLUSTRATION:

X hired services of Y, a goods transporter, to deliver a machine to his factory urgently. X also informed that his business has stopped for want of the machine. However, X delayed it, Y missed out on a huge order since he didn't have the machine with him. X can claim compensation from Y. The compensation amount will include the amount of profit he could have made by running his factory during the period of delay.

VINDICTIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES:

Where breach of contract results in loss of credibility of one party besides damages, the court may order for payment of exemplary damages. These damages are allowed only

In case of breach of marriage
Dishonour of a cheque by banker wrongfully

This damage is intended to punish the defendant and to prevent others from acting in a similar manner.

ILLUSTRATION:

Here X is a business man. He issues a cheque for his next order. He has sufficient funds in his account but the bank mistakenly dishonours the cheque. X files a suit claiming compensation for damages to his reputation. The Court awards a nominal amount as damage.

NOMINAL DAMAGES:

Nominal damages simply means "very small". Where the injured party has not suffered any damages or loss by reason of breach pf contract, the court may award very nominal sum as damage. This type of damage is awarded if there is an infringement of legal right. The amount can be as low as Re. 1

SUBSTANTIAL DAMAGES:

They are awarded when the extent of breach of contract is proved but there are uncertainities regarding calculation of damages. In such types of damages there is a complete failure in performing the terms and conditions of the contract at the end of one party.

LIQUIDATED DAMAGES:

In the case of liquidated damages, the parties to the contract fix a certain amount for the compensation.

These damages are paid out in the case of a breach of contract, and are a pre-estimated and spelled out in advance when the contract is signed.

ILLUSTRATION:

If X makes a contract with Y to build a temple that they need for use by a certain date, they could include a provision in the contract that Y must pay Rs.500 per day for every day longer it takes to finish the building than the date which is mentioned in the contract.

UNLIQUIDATED DAMAGES:

It is not pre-agreed and amount of money is to be determined by court by taking all facts into consideration. Damages that are claimed which are unforseeable is called as unliquidated damages.